SUV cross-country ability: main characteristics that are important off-road

The term body geometry is a parameter whose violation occurs after an accident. And if you think that you will need body geometry diagnostics only after a relatively serious accident, then you are mistaken. Even if you bumped your bumper somewhere, if you hit a curb with your wheel, even if you just drive a lot on our, you know, roads, then you need a systematic body check. You need to start (and, by the way, you need to do this constantly) by checking the wheel alignment of your car.

If the road has already begun to “eat” your tires, then you are already too late to check the camber. It also happens that the car’s alignment is even disturbed, and these are more serious problems. When the wheels overtake each other, when the car does not behave quite adequately on a slippery surface, this is a reason to contact a body doctor. What is this body geometry? These parameters are determined by the manufacturer, and service technicians have special documents and specific software, which, by the way, are constantly updated, and with its help it is possible to detect geometry violations.

What vehicle parameters affect geometric cross-country capability?

The geometric cross-country ability of a car primarily depends on the size of the vehicle itself. The basic parameters influencing this indicator are the following:

• Car dimensions: length, width, height;
• Wheelbase length;
• Track width is the distance between two wheels on the same axle at the center of the point of contact;
• Front and rear overhang are the distances from the wheel axle to the front (or rear) point of the car.

Ground clearance under the front bumper

The distance from the bottom edge of the front bumper to the ground should be measured first. The front bumper is the first to encounter obstacles when a car hits them, so it suffers the most from curbs, winter snowdrifts and deep ruts.

As a rule, the distance from the front bumper to the ground is greater than the minimum vehicle ground clearance (clearance).

For most cars, the distance under the front bumper is:

• for passenger cars - from 14 to 20 cm.
• For crossovers - from 18 to 25 cm.
• For SUVs - from 20 to 35 cm.

Many modern cars have a strip of flexible, unpainted plastic around the perimeter of the lower part of the bumper, which some car enthusiasts call a “skirt”. This structural element performs a protective function, acting as an audible alarm when hitting an obstacle. If damaged, this part is easy and inexpensive to replace.

Body inspection using 3D measurement

This method consists of comparing the height, length and width of the main structural elements with reference options. This can only be done using special three-dimensional systems. Such a system itself establishes the planes from which the counting is made.

Width measurements are taken from the central plane. The central plane (line) is a line that conditionally divides the car along the center into equal halves. On some models, the manufacturer already places such marks in the lower or upper part of the body. Both parts of the car must be completely identical and symmetrical.

The height of the machine is measured from the main plane. This plane runs parallel to the car bottom.

From the zero plane placed in front of the car, its length is measured.

Length - ramp

The length of the ramp is selected with this race.  

The length of the ramp, measured along the centerline of the lane, is determined in plan by the horizontal projection of the ramp axis. The length of the projection depends on the height and angle of inclination of the ramp to the horizon and can be determined as follows: / ftctga, where / is the length of the projection; / g-floor height; a is the angle of inclination.  

With a ramp length of 72 m, the expansion joint is placed in the middle of the ramp on paired columns, and the gallery enclosing structures have two additional joints.  

The gallery box is monolithic reinforced concrete, with a ramp length of 60 m, separated by two expansion joints. Columns, foundations, beams, flat slabs of the service platform and slabs with bosses for the inclined ramp are prefabricated reinforced concrete.  

In order to further improve and increase the reliability of the mechanism, it is desirable to increase the length of the ramp to 75 m, increase the width of the sub-ramp conveyor belt to 1400 mm, as well as uniform intake of coke into the quenching car and complete and uniform quenching in the tower.  

Since the maximum permissible ramp slopes are standardized, with increasing floor height the length of the ramps increases, and at a standardized height it is so much that it is impossible to use some of the most common, convenient and economical ramp systems, in particular the so-called half-ramp.  

The vehicle's approach to the loading site and the possibility of loading it anywhere along the length of the ramp are simplified by using bridges that are hinged on carriages and move on them along the ramp along rails or guides.  

To facilitate the work of the electric locomotive driver and inform the coke sorting operator about the presence of coke on the ramp, flexible metal electrodes are installed in several places along the length of the ramp. If there is coke near the electrode, the circuit (through the coke) is closed to ground and light signals light up, indicating that this section of the ramp is full.  

The relationship between slope, length and height of ramps is expressed graphically by a nomogram in Fig. Software, using which you can easily determine the length of the ramp for various slopes at a given floor height.  

Tunnel layouts: a - mountain tunnel; 6 - underwater tunnel; c - city transport tunnel; / - portal; 2 - ramp; LT—tunnel length; Lp—ramp length; I is the depth of the tunnel.  

Reducing the number of columns in such a building to improve maneuvering conditions and increase the use of space requires increasing their pitch, which leads to an increase in the thickness of the floor and floor height, and therefore to an increase in the slope or length of the ramp. A satisfactory solution requires a column spacing such that at least three cars are installed between them. The choice of column grid becomes more complicated when the parking lot is designed for vehicles of different sizes.  

The coke ramp (Fig. 95) is an inclined platform lined with cast iron or diabase slabs. The length of the ramp allows coke from 4 to 5 furnaces to be placed on it. The coke is discharged from the ramp by lifting the sector gates. From the ramp, the coke falls onto a belt conveyor, and then through a transfer station to a coke sorting roller screen.  

Basic parameters of geometric cross-country ability

The concept of geometric cross-country ability of a car includes 5 main parameters:

• Ground clearance (clearance). This concept refers to the distance between the element of the car closest to the ground and the surface of the earth itself. According to current GOSTs, this distance is measured from the center of the car, but in practice, most often the lowest-lying elements of the car are located in the rear of the car, for example, the muffler resonator. If you put the car on a horizontal, flat surface and find its lowest point, and then measure the distance from it to the ground, this will be the ground clearance;
• Entry angle. This parameter is also often called the ramp angle, which sounds more understandable. It refers to the angle between a horizontal surface and a line drawn from the point of contact of the front wheels to the lowest point of the front of the car. The approach angle allows you to determine what surface a car can drive onto without damaging the front of the body;
• Departure angle. A parameter close to the approach angle that applies to the rear of the body. That is, it is the angle between the horizontal line and the line drawn from the point of contact of the rear wheels to the bottom of the car. This parameter determines the maximum angle of the surface that the car can drive into when reversing;
• Longitudinal flotation angle, also known as ramp angle. This parameter indicates the maximum angle of the surface that a car can drive onto without the bottom touching the ground. This parameter directly depends on the ground clearance and wheelbase length. Accordingly, the lower the ground clearance and the longer the wheelbase, the smaller the ramp angle;
• Tipping angle (angle of slope overcome). This parameter depends on the width, height and center of gravity of the vehicle. It implies the maximum angle of rotation of the car around the longitudinal axis, at which the vehicle is able to avoid turning over on its side. The greater the width of the vehicle and the lower the height and center of gravity, the greater its rollover angle. This parameter is also called the lateral static stability angle.

You can also highlight several parameters related to the geometric cross-country ability of the vehicle, but which are not key:

• Maximum angle overcome. This concept refers to the maximum steepness of the slope that a car can drive up without assistance. That is, this is the maximum angle of the surface on which the car drives relative to the horizon;
• The depth of the ford. This parameter determines the maximum depth to which the car can dive and continue moving without harm to technical components. First of all, the limitation of fording depth depends on the height of the engine air intake point, which is most often located under the hood of passenger cars. For SUVs, the air intake point may be on the roof if they are equipped with a snorkel - a special device that raises the air intake point. Please note: If water gets into the intake tract along with air, it can cause water hammer, which will result in the need for a major overhaul of the engine to restore its functionality.
• Suspension travel. This concept considers the maximum height that a wheel can overcome in a vertical position from the point of maximum compression of the suspension to complete unloading, practically during lift-off from the surface. This parameter does not have a key impact on the geometric cross-country ability of the car, and it is rarely mentioned when considering this parameter.

Cross angle

photo: Erik Lando/flickr.com

The second important indicator affecting the geometry of the car. The term is little known among wide circles of motorists, but is no less important in its meaning. It indicates the distance from the ground to the lowest point of the car between the wheels (lowest points of suspension elements, drives, fasteners and other units).

Often, manufacturers use either the best setting or a general concept for ground clearance at any point in the vehicle.

Relatively speaking, this parameter indicates the lowest point in the area of ​​the axes. One note: we are not talking about elements on the wheels themselves, such as, for example, mounting shock absorbers.

The transverse ground clearance in a car with suspension on solid drive axles is limited by the presence of a differential housing. In the case of independent suspension (split axle), the clearance is limited by the elements of the chassis itself (levers, silent blocks, and so on).

Most often, cars with independent suspension have higher ground clearance than cars with dependent suspension (solid axle). This applies to the vehicle, both loaded and unloaded (in the first case, the suspension is compressed, in the second, it is decompressed).

When a vehicle with independent suspension goes over a bump, the ground clearance changes. Under a rigid axle, ground clearance is always constant. It is also worth noting that ground clearance does not always correspond to the center of the axle. On some vehicles, the axle differential housing may be positioned slightly to the side (to the left or right).

The Hummer H1 is a prime example of the benefits of independent suspension. In a specialized all-round vehicle for the most difficult conditions, it is still better than the dependent version

In practice, although ground clearance is an important parameter, it is not the only parameter that determines the vehicle’s capabilities in field conditions. There is also no definite rule about what is better on a car - independent or dependent suspension. Because a lot in real life will depend on how the car is used.

For example, dependent suspension and high ground clearance will work better in ruts. On the other hand, when driving dynamically on large bumps, the dependent suspension ensures that the ground clearance will not always be constant and the chance of hitting an obstacle with a suspension element will be lower for such a car. Plus, the driver will be able to maneuver between obstacles with greater precision and chance without hitting them. This is especially true if there are stones and other serious obstacles on the road.

How to check body geometry

They mistakenly believe that if the camber and toe of your car’s wheels are in order, then, they say, everything is fine with the geometry. However, no. The body is checked on special stands and slipways. Here, using control points, with the help of special equipment, everything is checked: the dimensions and diagonals of the engine and luggage compartments, door and window openings, windshield, the distance between control points in the side members, load-bearing parts of the bottom, amplifiers, marks on the frame (if the car is framed), on roof pillars and so on.

What kind of special equipment is this? This is a measuring ruler or a stationary stand, a slipway, where using special marks, including electronic beacons, the distances between these same control points are checked. The car is fixed (with chains!) on a special platform, sensors are hung on the body in the right places, and since many points are hidden (they are located under body panel skins, under bumpers, under fender protections and sills), in order to get to them, you need to dismantle all interfering elements. Restoring the geometry of the body, and this happens in the process of body straightening work, is a very complex, troublesome and multi-step. An ordinary leveler will not work here; here you need to have the appropriate education, knowledge of car design, feel the metal, and have considerable straightening experience.

If they tell you that garage craftsmen can do this, that they will repair your damaged car in the garage using a special certified ruler, not in a flash, but they will repair it, do not believe it. They will say that, indeed, this operation takes a lot of time, that it is difficult to stretch the body, but it is possible, even without a proprietary slipway, but only with the help of other means known to them alone, do not believe it. Deviations in geometry occur in cars that are handicraftally repaired by people without special equipment and, as a rule, without the appropriate qualifications. It is recommended to check the geometry of the body and its supporting parts at control points (I repeat once again) at least once a year or at least every 30 thousand km.

How to measure the traffic of a retail outlet using technical means

Technical characteristics of the car Honda Fit 1.3 i-VTEC Hybrid GE_2010

If it’s winter or bad weather, it’s more convenient and efficient to use special technical means for measuring traffic.

Video recording. Opposite the store (if we are talking about a street, not a shopping center), the driver leaves the car with the DVR turned on. The recording goes on all day. At the end of the working day, the driver picks up the car. The video is then watched and thus the number of visitors is counted.

Data analysis takes four times less time than the video recording lasts, since it is viewed in quadruple rewind mode. That is, a video recording lasting 14 hours will be processed in 3.5 hours. If it’s faster, it’s already difficult to capture people, but looking slower is ineffective.

To decipher personal data from our employee (time counter) you will need even less - the questionnaires are available for automatic scanning and recognition, the information will be in the database within two minutes. As for the price, measurement using a DVR costs 1,200 rubles per hour for one point, and measurement using human resources costs 800 rubles per hour.

Laser transmitting device. This device can count store visitors around the clock. But, unfortunately, it is deprived of the ability to determine a person’s gender, age and income level.

It is installed on both sides of the entrance - on one side the laser is emitted (harmless to humans), and on the other the device receives it. As a result, when the laser is interrupted, a unit is counted in the information system. The measurement is taken at the level of the legs, not at the level of the body. I’ll explain why this is so: if people come in hugging, for example, if they are a couple, the technology does not identify them as two people. Therefore, you need to count the number of legs and then divide the result by two. The number of sellers who left and came in is being clarified further. Store employees simply record each of their entrances and exits, and their movements are then subtracted from the total traffic.

It is problematic to rent such equipment; more often it is purchased. In order to collect statistics on visits to a grocery store, it is much more profitable to use the services of a specialized agency.

How buyers choose stores and what advertising always works

Why know the geometric cross-country ability of a car?

The above parameters are important to one degree or another for determining the geometric cross-country ability of a vehicle. But most often, when advertising their cars, manufacturers focus on only four of them - ground clearance, approach and departure angles, and ramp angle. The remaining parameters are secondary and can tell little to an inexperienced driver who is planning to purchase a car.

However, the geometric cross-country ability of a car is not always the real cross-country ability of the car in difficult road conditions. Actual cross-country ability largely depends on the type of drive (and on the method of its operation), the presence or absence of inter-wheel locks, the quality of rubber, the contact surface, and so on. And more often than not, it is these parameters, and not the geometric characteristics, that determine the off-road qualities of a car.

Fording depth

Everything is clear here: this is the maximum depth of a water obstacle that a car can overcome without “choking.” The parameter is adjustable and depends on the air intake outlet above the expected waterline. For this purpose, devices called snorkels are used. They allow prepared SUVs to dive into the water up to the hood and even below.

In real conditions, playing with water can still end very badly. Not only does it prevent water from getting into the intake and cylinders, it is important that water does not flood the electronics or, even worse, the car does not tip over due to the water flow.

Corrosion diagnostics

Visual detection of car body corrosion

Car corrosion is the destruction of metal parts. Causes may include humid climates, chemicals, and damage to the vehicle body. Particularly dangerous are cracks, scratches, and gaps in which moisture accumulates. Diagnosis of the car body for corrosion should be carried out monthly.

• First of all, you need to carefully check the fenders, sills and underbody of the car, since these are the parts that most often come into contact with water and salt.
• Also inspect the handbrake, engine crankcase and brake line yourself or with the help of a mechanic.
• Check all joints and cavities of the car where moisture and dirt may accumulate.
• There should be no dark spots on the paint, under which the destructive process may have already begun.

At the first manifestation of the corrosion process, it is necessary to take appropriate measures.

Technical characteristics overview

How to drain gasoline from the tank of a modern car

The cabin and controls of the KAMAZ 4310 are designed to provide maximum comfort to the driver while operating the vehicle. The cabin is located above the engine and is equipped with a ventilation and climate system. The control system is based on the lever-steering principle of influencing the adjustment of operating functions. There is a function for tilting the driver's cabin, if necessary, to gain access to the V-engine. There are two cabin design options for this vehicle model. Regional cargo transportation does not require a sleeping place in the car, since the time period of one flight is short. For long-distance vehicles, a driver's cabin with a sleeping bag is installed so that you can rest at the transshipment point.

The KAMAZ 4310 all-terrain vehicle is equipped with huge fuel tanks, each of which can be filled with up to 125 liters of fuel. Some modifications of this series of trucks are equipped with a 250-liter fuel tank. If we take into account the standard fuel consumption for such vehicles, then the possible supply of fuel fluid does not allow for long trips without refueling. But the use of inexpensive engine oils reduces the cost of operating equipment.

The brake system of KAMAZ 4310 has a rather complex design and includes such mechanisms as drum brakes, a device for parking and emergency adjustment of the vehicle chassis, and an additional device for slowing down the operating process of propulsion equipment with a pneumatic drive device. One of the advantageous features in the mechanical design of the car is the winch mechanism. The KAMAZ winch is equipped with a worm gear unit and is a powerful drum connection. Here, a special tape is used to brake moving components. The cable pull level is fifteen tons, with the ability to use a winch rope of 83 meters. The winch mechanism operates thanks to the power take-off unit.

Thanks to its high technical characteristics, repairing a KAMAZ 4310 does not require huge financial costs. All mechanical components of the machine are made of especially durable materials, based on the best grades of steel. Possessing properties with a large margin of safety, the car will be in regular use for a long period of time, without the need to replace or repair parts. At the end of the warranty period for using special cargo transport, despite the technical condition of the mechanical connections of the equipment, it is recommended to undergo standard maintenance, which can be carried out at any repair center.

The KAMAZ 4310 clutch has a double-disc design and, being a friction mechanism, makes it easier to start the operating functions of the vehicle. The vehicle body is made of solid metal and is equipped with a hinged rear door. Initially, used for the needs of the country's armed forces, the interior of the car body was equipped with folding lavas and covered with canvas material around the entire perimeter.

Vehicle ground clearance

To measure ground clearance, set the distance from the reference plane to the further lowest point. Elasticity is determined using goniometric instruments. If the rear axle is raised in the top position of the car, you can measure the rear overhang angle. To clarify the radius of longitudinal cross-country ability, it is specified from the circle touching the rear ones, passing through the low point of the base of the car.

In a three-axle machine, the radius of longitudinal flotation in a raised position is specified. Traction indicators are taken into account:

• specific traction force exerted by the drive wheels;
• wheel grip on the ground;
• vehicle drag coefficient.

Such indicators affect the driving time of a car on sand, dirt roads, plowing, and snow. During the preparation of the protocol, the physical and chemical properties of the soil are established, where the resistance density determined by cutting the moisture content and the soil layer is indicated. The vehicle's cross-country ability depends on its class, cross-country geometry, and transmission type. The greater the departure angle, approach angle, roll angle, and ground clearance, the easier the vehicle overcomes obstacles on the roads.

Sources:

https://www.kolesa.ru/article/chto-takoe-geometricheskaya-prohodimost-avtomobilya https://okeydrive.ru/geometricheskaya-proxodimost-avtomobilya/ https://automania.ru/forums/threads/chto-takoe -geometricheskaja-proxodimost-avtomobilja.2388/ https://zen.yandex.ru/media/id/5c780cf2e4120400b32d39fd/5d8affe62fda8600b1731b8d https://ustroistvo-avtomobilya.ru/teoriya/prohodimost-i-manevrennost-avtomobilya/ https :// avtoelektrik-info.ru/sovety/kakie-tehnicheskie-harakteristiki-avtomobilya-vliyayut-na-prohodimost

Ground clearance of popular car models

Ground clearance (clearance) of popular passenger car models:

• Lada Granta - 160-180 mm,
• Lada Vesta - 175-178 mm,
• Kia Rio – 160 mm,
• Hyundai Creta – 190 mm,
• Volkswagen Polo – 170 mm,
• Hyundai Solaris – 160 mm,
• Lada Largus – 175 mm,
• Toyota RAV4 – 195-200 mm,
• Skoda Rapid – 170 mm,
• Volkswagen Tiguan – 190 mm,
• Renault Logan – 170 mm,
• Renault Duster – 210 mm,
• Lada 4×4 – 228 mm,
• Kia Sportage – 182 mm,
• Toyota Camry – 155 mm,
• Renault Sandero Stepway – 195 mm,
• Skoda Octavia – 156 mm,
• Nissan Qashqai – 200 mm,
• Hyundai Tucson – 181 mm,
• Skoda Kodiaq – 188 mm,
• Renault Captur – 203 mm,
• Nissan X-Trail – 210 mm,
• Mazda CX-5 – 200 mm,
• Lada XRAY – 195 mm,
• Mitsubishi Outlander - 215 mm.

Reasons for violation of body geometry

It is generally accepted that the main reason for the violation of the geometry of the vehicle body is its participation in an accident. It is difficult to argue with this, but there are often situations when the same result is caused by improper operation of the machine or by reasons resulting from natural or man-made factors.

So, if you operate a car for a long time in conditions that can hardly be called satisfactory, for example, on dirt roads or asphalt in frankly poor condition, then the control points inevitably shift, resulting in a loss of symmetry. As a result, there is increased wear of suspension parts, which negatively affects the operation of all other components of the car.

Snow and puddles are another scourge of roads: they hide uneven road surfaces. Deep holes are especially dangerous, falling into them at high speed is fraught with a whole bunch of troubles. The use of tires with an asymmetrically worn tread pattern, as well as tires of different models, also threatens the rapid loss of the original geometry of body parts and chassis.

How to increase car clearance

To improve the cross-country ability of their car, some car owners increase its ground clearance (clearance). This should not be done unless absolutely necessary; raising the car body above the road will inevitably lead to a deterioration in the stability and controllability of the car.

Ways to increase car clearance

• Increasing the size of rims
  is the easiest way to increase ground clearance; when increasing the rim size, the tire profile height should remain the same: for example, replacing wheels from 195/65R15 to 205/65R16 will lead to an increase in the outer radius of the wheel and an increase in ground clearance, but this requires Be careful: the increased outer radius of the wheels will affect the accuracy of the speedometer readings, and may also damage the speed sensor, which will affect the performance of the ABS and ESP systems.
• Using higher profile tires
  – Using higher profile tires increases the outer radius of the wheel, which can lead to poor handling and stability of the vehicle at high speeds and when cornering, in addition to the same problems with the speedometer and speed sensor.

• Replacing shock absorbers and suspension springs
  is a complex and expensive way to increase ground clearance; the increased ground clearance as a result of such modernization will lead to an increase in the height of the car's center of gravity, which will significantly worsen the car's stability in corners.
• Install special spacers to increase ground clearance
  - plastic, polyurethane or aluminum spacers are installed between the supporting part of the rack and the body. Installing spacers increases ground clearance, but also raises the vehicle's center of gravity, which leads to poor cornering stability.

When increasing the car's ground clearance, you should be aware that improving some characteristics of the car leads to a deterioration in others.

Cars equipped with pneumatic or pneumatic-hydraulic suspension have built-in automatic ride height (clearance) adjustment. On passenger cars, hose-type pneumatic cylinders or adjustable shock absorbers are used as a pneumatic elastic element.

What is railway gauge

In fact, the concept of “gauge” is simply a simplified name for the more complex term “ distance between the inner edges of the rail heads ”. It’s somehow not customary to say this and it even smacks of some kind of technophilia, so this indicator is usually simply called the gauge.

China has begun laying tracks for high-speed magnetic levitation trains

But the existence of a detailed definition is useful for a general understanding of what it all is. This is actually the distance between the tops of the rail. That is, this is the place with which the side flange of the wheel contacts.

The problem with global rail traffic is that a very large number of countries have different gauges. Therefore, engineers have to solve a difficult problem. They must understand how to quickly and safely change bogies under wagons or even change track gauges without resorting to such complex decisions. New trains can already do this, but with old ones you have to use the old-fashioned method.

The railway track width looks like this and is measured using this tool.

How is clearance measured?

It is very useful for every driver to know the ground clearance of his car, and it is also useful for the driver to visually imagine the location of various structural elements under the bottom of his car. This kind of information will ensure comfortable driving and safe overcoming of obstacles encountered on the road.

It is best to measure vehicle clearance in an inspection pit with level ramps. Before taking measurements, you should make sure that the pressure in the car tires corresponds to the value specified by the car manufacturer. Ground clearance is measured without the driver, passengers, luggage and with a minimum amount of fuel in the car tank.

You can measure ground clearance using a tape measure or ruler. Ground clearance is usually indicated in millimeters.

Measurements should be taken at several lower points: under the front and rear bumpers, under the engine crankcase, under the gearbox, under the front and rear axles of the car. The clearance will be considered the smallest of the obtained values.

The vehicle's ground clearance is not a constant value. Different cars of the same model will have different ground clearance. Ground clearance also decreases over time due to wear and tear on tires and vehicle suspension parts.

Railway gauge in Russia

Initially, the railway gauge in Russia (later in the USSR), as well as in Finland and Mongolia, was 1524 mm or 5 English feet. In the second half of the last century, from approximately 1970 to 1990, the gauge changed slightly and amounted to 1520 mm . Such a seemingly insignificant change was needed in order to make the movement of heavy freight trains more stable. This was especially true against the backdrop of increasing rolling stock speeds.

All countries that were part of the USSR still use the gauge standard adopted at that time, and in other countries, for example, in Finland, the gauge is still the same as 1524 mm. Even subway cars have the same track. Some roads in Russia and other former USSR countries also still have a gauge of 1524 mm. This is mainly found on some slop tracks or spurs built to businesses. It makes no sense to change them , and trains almost never run on them.

Rails for metro trains in all countries of the former USSR also have a gauge of 1520 mm. The same applies to trams, but there are exceptions here, and in some cities you can find narrow-gauge trams. For example, in Kaliningrad, Pyatigorsk, Zhitomir, Vinnitsa, Evpatoria and some other cities, trams run on rails whose gauge is one meter.

All due to the fact that 4 mm is not such a difference that requires re-equipment of the carriage bogies. True, at the initial stage, new sections led to accelerated wear of the flange and rolling surface of car wheel pairs. Later, when the standard was introduced everywhere, the problem gradually went away. Although many experts, technicians, track workers and repairmen argued that the connection between changing the gauge and increased wear is far-fetched.

When a road wears out, it needs to be repaired, but this is not due to a change in track.

The gauge of 1524 meters was first used during the construction of the Nikolaev railway. The railway workers, to whom I was once included, even have a story that Nicholas I was offered to make a road with a gauge of one and a half meters (for good measure), to which he replied something along the lines of “well... with him.” As a result, another 24 mm was added. Of course, these are all jokes, because 1524 mm is exactly five English feet, that is, a beautiful round number. But the Nikolaevskaya road became the first double-track road in Russia, connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Steam locomotive cemetery and how old trains are disposed of

Now it is called the October Railway , and by the strong-willed decision of its creators it was she who set the standard for centuries to come. Before this, the very first railway in Russia, called Tsarskoye Selo, had a gauge of 1829 mm. This, by the way, is six English feet - another round number.

Changing the layout

Self-locking differential on Niva, pumping up cross-country ability.
At each retail outlet, there are places with more concentrated traffic. They can also be calculated and then the most profitable product can be placed there. For example, our client, the Azbuka Vkusa chain, has areas in its stores where the traffic is 70% men and 30% women. The retailer sells this information to brewing companies, and pallets of new beer are laid out there. And it really gives good results. Such places tend to “migrate” in the store depending on the season, so you need to measure traffic in the store once every 3-4 months.

Now I want to say a few words about how not to use places with the highest traffic. Most stores, in order to offer the buyer a high-margin product, proceed as follows:

• place it in the path of customers so that they need to go around it;
• they make a rearrangement - for example, instead of the popular 3.2% fat kefir they put in milk bars or other goods of impulse demand.

But such forced merchandising is an old technique, and, in fact, has outlived its usefulness. I'll explain why.

When a person enters an unfamiliar store, he usually goes straight or left. That is why most often the entrance to the store is on the right side, and then the space is organized in such a way that the buyer walks around all groups of goods. But when a person has studied the algorithm for moving around the store, he builds his own optimal route, independent of what marketers have built there.

As a result, 3–4 months after opening, “ant paths” appear in the store: customers no longer move along the main trajectory, but go directly to the goods they need. Then retailers resort to rearrangement so that in the usual place a person finds not the product he is looking for, but something else that is more profitable for the store. Such rearrangements should not be abused - it irritates customers and can lead to their churn.

People come to the store with a specific purpose - Ruzsky kefir, Borodinsky bread and table eggs. Somewhere at the subconscious level they are ready to experiment, but the product needs to be offered more gently. If you always “hide his slippers from a person,” he may get tired of it.

Commercial director: job responsibilities and functions

Why do different countries have different railway gauges?

It is partly a myth, and partly true, that different railway gauges in different countries are needed so that in the event of an invasion, enemy troops cannot quickly seize the tracks and transfer their troops inland. Moreover, almost at the dawn of the formation of railways, the horse was inferior to the steam locomotive in moving goods over long distances.

According to one version, the choice in Europe and some other countries of the 1435 mm gauge is due to the fact that this value corresponds to the gauge of a standard cart in the Roman Empire. But this version is not found very often. Much more often they say that when railways were born in Europe, they were already being built in full swing in the USA and the Europeans simply took a look at how it should be done.

In fact, this was rather a pleasant addition and, for example, during the construction of the Nikolaev railway this was not taken into account. Moreover, in Europe at that time there was no single standard at all and different countries made their own versions of the gauge. Later, a single width was established, which is used almost everywhere except Finland, the Baltic states and the CIS countries - 1435 mm. The same width is used in the USA, China, Korea and even Australia.

Examples of railway gauge widths in Europe

Is railway gauge important?

The width of a country's railway gauge is important. It is always selected not out of the blue, but taking into account all the features. For example, somewhere it often needs to be laid through rocks and wide trains can be a real headache, but somewhere they carry large loads and the track must ensure the stability of the train. The wider it is, the more stable the composition will be.

China's new magnetic levitation train will be able to reach speeds of 600 km/h

However, there is no big advantage of the Russian gauge over the European gauge. The difference of 85 mm (1520 versus 1435 mm) does not provide a significant increase in stability. Although in Russia the carriages are significantly larger than European ones. There is also the concept of a railway gauge, here we rely on taking everything away at once. This is not surprising at such and such distances.

The railway gauge has its own GOST.

Proof that the gauge is not always related to the dimensions of the train is that in China the European gauge is adopted, but the dimensions of the train there are very close to ours. This applies to both width and height.

The value of the railway gauge cannot be changed so easily either, because all tunnels, platforms and other infrastructure are designed for it. Moreover, when the Ministry of Defense orders the development of some equipment, it is specified, among other things, that it must fit into a railway gauge. This makes it easier to transfer it. What kind of equipment is there, even the famous BelAZ trucks are dismantled into parts so that they can be delivered by rail.

How to measure the income level of buyers

It does not require a degree in psychology to understand which class a person belongs to—working class, middle class, or upper class. There is no need to rank visitors more clearly, this is already enough.

There are dozens of external signs that can help determine your income level in 5 seconds; we visualized them and show them during training to our accounting specialists. I will list the most reliable signs.

Hand luggage. If a person enters a store with a large bag - that is, it is not a purse, but a bag, then the person is definitely a pedestrian. If a person has nothing in his hands, I’ll give 80% that he came by car. Outerwear. However, a person may work in a nearby office building and go to the store during his lunch break, leaving his bag at his workplace

In this case, we pay attention to outerwear: if an adult wears a down jacket, this is one thing, if a thin sheepskin coat is completely different. Where's the phone? If a visitor holds a phone in his hands, it means he talks on it a lot and must always be in touch. He is running some business, and it is possible that he has succeeded in it. Facial expression

There are outwardly very calm people; it is clear that they are not concerned about how they will feed their family tomorrow, how to fuel their car, how to pay the rent. If these issues bother a person, there is a high chance that he will appear focused. Look at the bottom or the top. Where does a person look when entering a store - at his feet or forward (in front of himself)? Successful people with a high level of income look from above, their gaze goes horizontally. People who are preoccupied with something have a more precarious social position and look down at their feet. A well-known psychological sign, we also use it.

Can a country have two types of railway tracks?

Maybe! It has already been said above that trams in some cities use a narrower gauge. The same applies to the mining industry. For example, such roads (750 mm gauge) are used on roads along which peat and timber are transported. True, now their number is rapidly declining and they are being “converted” to standard gauge or abandoned.

But such roads are much easier to build and maintain. They also allow you to make a smaller turning radius. This has its advantages, but in a world where everything strives for unification, there is less and less room for them.

Autonomous train received the title of “largest robot”

Another area of ​​use for roads with a width of 750 mm is children's railways, which can be found in different cities of our country. Here, schoolchildren practice train control skills and the intricacies of movement in order to try out a profession and understand whether they want to connect their lives with the railway.

On the children's railway, children run the show. Under adult supervision, of course.

The widest railway

If we talk about the widest railway, we can say that there is none. Of course, there is a 1676 mm gauge, which is found in India, Pakistan, Chile, Argentina, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, but there was a project for a real king of the road. But it was hatched in Nazi Germany and did not imply peaceful construction for commercial purposes.

Initially, it was planned to connect Japan and India with Europe using such a road. Naturally, through the territory of the USSR. The project, which was called “ Breitspurbahn ”, assumed a track width of exactly three meters. The road was supposed to become very fast and transport huge loads over long distances. The project was not destined to come true and no one else approached the implementation of such decisions as seriously as the leadership and engineers of the Third Reich.

How to calculate store traffic

The number of passersby is measured not only near the proposed location, but also on neighboring streets:

• within a radius of up to 500 m from the measurement point;
• up to 1 km;
• up to 1.5 km.

For a grocery store, one and a half kilometers is the distance from which people will go, the maximum that can be expected.

As a result, the proportion of pedestrians who will come to the store is calculated for each zone. Of course, both the price level and incentives will play a role, but we can roughly talk about the number of people who will use the store’s services.

It is necessary to take into account the traffic generators of a retail outlet - metro stations, ground transport stations, various public facilities, where the number of pedestrians is obviously higher

Danger of ruts on the road surface

The problem of the appearance of ruts on the road worries all motorists, since the resulting “rutting” can cause an accident, and with quite serious consequences.

Rutting is understood as deformation of the roadway structure in the form of a slight change in the transverse profile located in the areas of the rolling strips. Ruts can appear on almost any type of road. It can occur in both winter and summer. In winter, rutting is caused by squeezing out snow from under the wheels of a car. In summer, ruts can form due to excessive pressure from vehicle wheels on the asphalt concrete mixture.

The main danger occurs when driving through a track at a significant angle. In this case, different resistance is applied to the wheels of the car, resulting in a strong rotational impulse. If the speed at the moment was high, the car immediately goes into an instant skid, trying to quickly turn it around its own axis. Even experienced drivers cannot always react properly to such a sudden change in the car’s behavior.

Driving a car on ruts pressed into the asphalt is especially dangerous in rainy weather, when in addition to the rut itself, the tires of the car are also affected by water accumulated in the furrows. When entering such zones at very high speeds, the wheels simply do not have time to touch the hard surface, resulting in a hydroplaning effect. It is important not to enter a rut at high speed, as the car can simply be “thrown” out of it into a ditch or into the oncoming lane.

Snow ruts are something that almost all motorists in our country encounter. Each new snowfall, as well as a continuous stream of traffic, immediately provokes the appearance of ruts on the snowy road.

To drive safely in snowy conditions, you should:

• significantly reduce speed. If, under optimal road conditions, you can go around an obstacle without problems, then if there is a rut, it will be problematic to suddenly change the direction of movement,
• increase the distance to vehicles ahead,
• When the car is rocking from side to side, do not try to level it by sharp turns of the steering wheel. You just need to gradually reduce the speed,
• avoid changing lanes at high speeds,
• If possible, move on top of the track, passing the chute in the middle of the vehicle.

How the tests are carried out

By doing tests, the car’s performance indicators are established on roads with uneven and hard surfaces, as well as on roads covered with snow, mud, and sand. The possibility of driving through wetlands is being explored. If the vehicle has high and increased cross-country ability, then additional capabilities must be studied, which include the ability to overcome vertical obstacles and water obstacles.

During the study, the following characteristics are taken into account:

• Car load capacity;
• Travel speed;
• fuel consumption.

The vehicle's cross-country ability is also influenced by geometric parameters, shapes, chain and traction properties, wheel arrangement, differential type, ground clearance, transverse and longitudinal cross-country radii. Based on these characteristics, the possibility of purchasing a car and using it on various uneven surfaces, the ability to move along ditches and hillocks is established.

Origins

Popular legend traces the 1435mm gauge back to the coalfields of northern England, pointing to chariot-rutted roads dating back to Roman times. This legend has been debunked. The historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn carts at approximately 1524 mm wide probably stems from the width required to accommodate the draft horse between the shafts. Additionally, while road vehicles were typically measured from the outer edge of the wheel rim (there is evidence that early railroads were measured the same way), it became apparent that for rail vehicles it was better to have the wheel flanges inside the rails, thus The distance between the inner edges of the wheels (and, as a consequence, between the inner rail heads) became very important.

There was no normal gauge for horse-drawn railways, but there was a rough classification:

• in the north of England it is no longer 1219 mm.
• The Wylam gauge system, built before 1763, was 1524mm wide, as was John Blenkinsop's railways when the old 1219mm wide tracks were rebuilt to accommodate Blenkinsop's steam locomotives.
• At Beamish the width was 1341 mm or 1447 mm (Bigges Main Kenton Coxlodge).

British inventor George Stephenson worked for several years as an engineer in the coal mines in County Durham. He liked the 1435mm gauge at Northumberland and Durham and used them on his Killingworth line. Trolley rails at Hetton and Springwell also used this gauge.

The Stephenson Stockton-Darlington Railway is the world's first public railway using locomotive (steam) traction. Opened on September 27, 1825. It was built primarily to transport coal from several mines near Shildon to the port of Stockton-on-Tees. The main gauge of 1422mm was installed to accommodate the existing track for the hundreds of coal cars already in use at the mines. It was built and used for 15 years before being changed to 1435mm wide.

KAMAZ 4310 has various modifications

KAMAZ 4310 dump truck is one of the most common variants of these vehicles. Most often, such a machine, with a self-elevating body, can be found at construction sites or in the sector of excavation of soil masses. The peculiarity of the body of this technical device simplifies the unloading of earth masses and construction waste, without requiring the use of additional working reserves. The self-unloading ability of the car served as the main positive argument for the use of such equipment in certain areas of activity and the car gained high popularity in the construction and household sectors.

An equally popular modification of the vehicle is the KAMAZ 4310 timber truck. Such a vehicle can travel not only along ordinary roads, but also through forest paths. This type of equipment is mainly used to carry out transportation operations in the logging industry. The timber truck is equipped with a drive device that regulates the alignment of each wheel. To unload timber, a hydraulic lifting manipulator device is installed on board. Instead of a regular body, a special trailer for long trees is attached to the car.

KAMAZ 4310 power steering is in active production in the transport sector. As a result of replacing the mechanisms, which have distinctive features with the previous mechanical devices that were the main equipment of the KAMAZ 5320 (out of production), the pressure in the steering unit changed slightly. To install the power steering, use a steering propeller shaft, bipod, nuts for bipods (number 853512), washers of a certain type for sealing in places where the bipod touches and nuts with number 853631, bolted fasteners (16*140 - two bolts, 16*70 - two bolt).

Trucks of the above model were classified as conversion vehicles. All conversion-type machines have a standard assembly and are completely ready for sale, that is, further operation. New batteries and electrical mechanism systems are being installed in transport. The price of KAMAZ 4310 from conservation will amount to a million rubles. Cars that have already been purchased, regardless of their functional purpose, are slightly cheaper when resold. The reduction in the initial price depends on the period of operation of the equipment, the condition of the mechanical connections, the mileage of the vehicle and the availability of additional equipment.

The appearance of a track of 1435 mm

George Stephenson used 1435mm gauge (with an extra centimeter to reduce drag in curves) for the Liverpool and Manchester railways, which were authorized in 1826 and opened on 30 September 1830. The success of this project led to George and his son Robert being hired to design several more major railroad projects. However, the Chester and Birkenhead Railway, approved on July 12, 1837, had a gauge of 1493 mm, the Eastern Counties Railway, approved on July 4, 1836, had a gauge of 1,524 mm, and the London and Blackwall Railway, approved on July 28, 1836, had a gauge of 1,524 mm. London-Brighton road approved 15 July 1837 - 1493 mm, Manchester-Birmingham road approved 30 June 1837 was 1493 mm, Manchester-Leeds road approved 4 July 1836 - 1493 mm, Northern and Eastern road approved 4 July 1836, had a gauge of 1524 mm. Roads with a width of 1493 mm were supposed to accommodate vehicles for a gauge of 1435 mm and were an acceptable deviation.

Stephenson began to receive many orders for his locomotives, and Stephenson and his son Robert were hired to design several other major railroad projects. Thus the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) gauge became widespread and dominant in Britain. Therefore, this gauge has become widespread in Europe and America. It is sometimes called "Stephenson" or "normal railway gauge".

George Stephenson's son, Robert Stephenson, insisted on a larger gauge (5 ft - 1524 mm or 5 ft 3 in - 1600 mm). He proceeded from a more convenient placement of parts of the steam locomotives being designed.

At that time, few people thought that the gauge should be chosen based on the creation of a unified railway network in one country, or even more so on entire continents. It seemed that this was a matter of the distant future. In Great Britain, different gauges were adopted from the very beginning of construction. In 1833, the engineer Brinell proposed building the Great Western Road in Great Britain with a gauge of 7 feet (2135 mm). He believed that this would create more favorable conditions for increasing the speed of movement. And such a railway was built. In addition to it, three more large railways had a gauge different from Stephenson's, namely 1676 and 1600 mm. Thus, only in the birthplace of railways were four different gauges adopted at the beginning of construction! Somewhat later, other gauge widths were adopted. At first, while all the railways being built by different companies and joint-stock companies were separated from each other, this did not cause any special concerns. However, approximately 20 years after the start of railway construction - in the mid-40s of the 19th century - the issue of gauge became one of the most pressing in the public life of the country. Where roads with different gauges connected, passengers had to transfer from one carriage to another to continue their journey, and cargo had to be reloaded. This caused great inconvenience. Finally, the issue was raised in the British Parliament.

We count the store's traffic on our own

Measuring store traffic yourself is very easy. To do this, you need to stand next to the store and count the passers-by. It is not at all necessary to come close to the outlet - just sit on a bench nearby, from where you can clearly see the entrance to the store.

What to take with you. There are a lot of technical means with which you can count people entering a store. Here are the most popular ones.

1. A regular pedometer - press the button, one is added. Such equipment can be purchased at any sports store. You can count men and women separately, in which case you will need two pedometers: the left hand will be responsible for women, the right hand for men.
2. Specialized programs for iPhone that can be used to calculate traffic.

If you need more accurate data, you can also keep a count of people who came to the store with a group (couples, couples with children, two women, two men), the approximate age of visitors and even income level. To do this, you need to create accounting forms with possible options and check the appropriate boxes. We define age in 5 gradations:

• up to 25 years;
• from 25 to 35 years;
• from 35 to 45 years;
• from 45 to 55 years;
• from 55 years old.

How long should you count? It is not necessary to count throughout the working day; it is best to take 20-minute measurements every hour. Next, when calculating the final traffic, the data for every 20 minutes must be multiplied by three - this way you will get the number of people per hour.

Measurements should be taken at least once an hour if we are talking about trading. We tried to shorten these time periods and measure every two hours, assuming that between 13:00 and 14:00, 14:00 and 15:00 the same number of people came. But despite the fact that this is a traditional lunch break (from 13:00 to 15:00), the errors reached 50%. Therefore, we abandoned this model and recommend doing 14 intervals during the day if the store is open from 8:00 to 22:00.

How to attract customers to a store that is in a bad location

Royal commission

A special parliamentary commission was created, which on August 12, 1846, based on the opinions of 46 experts, adopted a bill on the issue of gauge. The commission found that construction costs are higher for wider gauges, but was unable to show how this is compensated for during the operation of the lines. By the time the Bill was passed, Britain had gauge railways. 4'8 1/2″ (1435 mm) - 3228 km; 5'3″2 (1600 mm) - 55 km; 5'6″ (1676 mm) - 55 km; 6'2″ (1880 mm) —43 km; 7′ (2135 mm) - 469 mm. Still, most of the roads had a Stephenson gauge. And changing a wide gauge to a narrow one is cheaper than converting a narrow one to a wide one. This was also an important argument in favor of adopting a narrower gauge. At the same time, serious arguments were made in favor of 6'3", 5'6" and 6'2" gauges . Only the 7′ gauge was not supported by any of the experts.

The Royal Commission was in favor of normal gauge. In Great Britain, the Stevenson gauge was chosen as the standard gauge because the overall length of railways of this gauge was greater than that of its competitor, the 2140 mm gauge adopted mainly by the Great Western.

A law passed by the British Parliament obligated all railway owners to change the gauge to a width of 4'8 1/2″ (1435 mm). All future roads also had to be built with this gauge. In case of violation of the gauge law, the “offending road” had to pay a fine of 10 pounds. Art. from every 10 miles for every day of existence. An exception was made for Ireland, where the 5'3" (1600 mm) gauge was retained.

This has allowed a large number of UK companies to continue to repair their tracks and expand their networks within the limits of deviations and exceptions written into the law. At the end of the transition period (the tracks were laid with three running rails) in 1892, the Great Western Railway finally rebuilt its tracks in accordance with the normal gauge.

In Ireland, the issue of gauge was not easily resolved. In the 1840s, Ireland had six gauge standards, ranging from 6'2″ (1880 mm) and below. To resolve the issue fairly, the gauge was calculated as the average of all gauges, and all railways were obliged to change their gauge to a new one. Today in Ireland the gauge is 1600 mm.

Internal or external ramp slope

The slope of an internal or external ramp may exceed 15% only in specially justified cases. On ramps with a slope of more than 15% To prevent pedestrians from slipping, you have to think about installing steps or corrugating the surface of the road surface. If the ramp of a large garage also serves as an evacuation route, then on one side of the ramp a raised sidewalk with a width of at least 80 cm is installed. In places where the slope changes, it is necessary to ensure the passage of long vehicles and provide the necessary clear height for them. Although garage rules do not require the installation of longitudinal mating curves and. roundings in the vertical plane, they are recommended to be performed in all cases.

In a ramp with a variable slope, the radius of the inner edge of its surface should not be less than 5 m. Between ramps with a slope of more than 5% and the urban road network, a horizontal platform should be provided, which increases safety and ease of movement and provides the driver with the necessary overview of the road situation. The minimum length of such a platform is assumed to be 5 m. If the ramp is intended only for passenger cars, then the length of the platform is reduced to 3 m with a longitudinal slope of up to 10%.

External ramps should be protected from ice and snow. As structural measures, it is recommended to install canopies or heat the roadway. Storage areas in open garages and open ramps on the outside must have guards at least 60 cm high to prevent vehicles from falling. For the calculation of fencing, the standard DIN 1055, part 3, section is valid. 7.4.2 (1978) “Loads on structures, traffic loads.”

Since the existing general guidelines or rules regulating the size of parking spaces and driveways in garages are still not consistent with each other, it is necessary to streamline them when developing Garage Rules. In accordance with the new Garage Rules, parking spaces for passenger cars in garages must have a minimum length of 5 m and a width of 2.3 m. However, they must not be limited by side walls or partitions. Otherwise, the size of the storage areas should be increased. When installing cars at an angle of 45°, the passages must have a width of at least 3.5 m, when installing at an angle of 60° - at least 4.5 m and when installing perpendicularly - at least 6.5 m. When installing cars perpendicularly and with a minimum width For parking spaces of 2.5 m, it is enough to provide passages 5.5 m wide, which will improve the conditions for entering the parking lot. The minimum width of aisles can be determined by interpolation; if vehicles are placed at other angles and the dimensions of storage areas differ from those mentioned above, the minimum dimensions should not be reduced by columns and other building structures or equipment.

Construction of garages

In the world

On the European continent, there was also a real leapfrog with gauge at the beginning. Basically, the Stephenson gauge was adopted - 4'8 1/2″. But in Germany, the Baden Railways introduced a 6′ wide gauge, in Spain, and then in Portugal - a 5'6″ gauge, the Amsterdam-Aarheim line was also widened. Some Swiss railways also had a wider gauge. However, this situation could not be tolerated for a long time - passenger transfers and cargo transshipment caused too large and unjustified losses of time and money. Agreements were concluded between the then existing states on the introduction of a single track. Such agreements were concluded, for example, between the city of Frankfurt and the Grand Duchy of Hesse, the Netherlands and Prussia. The Union of German Railways finally decided in favor of the Stephenson gauge of 4'8 1/2″. It ultimately became the main one for most European countries.

In North America, the 4'8 1/2″ gauge was preferred, but some railroads were built with a different gauge. For example, the 579 km New Orleans-Nashville road was built with a 6′ gauge. The United States was then on the eve of the Civil War, and the use of different gauges was part of the hostile policy of the Southern States towards the Northern States. Until 1860, railways were built with gauges (except Stephenson): 6′ (1829 mm), 5'6″ (1676 mm), 5′ (1524 mm), 4'10" (1473 mm), 4'9 ″ (1448 mm). In February 1886, after long negotiations, the “Convention for the Introduction of a Uniform Gauge of US Railways” was concluded. It is interesting that the change of track to the Stephenson track over a length of approximately 21,000 km was completed in two days - May 31 and June 1, 1886. The track was narrowed in the states: Georgia (3882 km); Tennessee (3034 km), Alabama (2901 km), South Carolina (2124 km), Florida (2011 km), Kentucky (1799 km), Virginia (1578 km), North Carolina (1545 km), Mississippi (1249 km), Louisiana (504 km). Preparatory work took 79 days, and after re-stitching, finishing work continued for another 50 days. Approximately 21,000 km of railway track had to be rebuilt in 2 days.

Canadian railways have a similar gauge.